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When you=92re steering upwind, where do you=20 sit?
I prefer to steer from the weather side in almost any amount = of=20 wind, as long as it=92s comfortable. You=92ll find that most of the good = sailors=20 steer from the windward side because this offers them a better = opportunity to=20 see the waves, feel the wind in their face, gauge the pressure on the = rudder and=20 get a feeling for the angle (heel) of the boat in relation to the = horizon; it=20 also keeps them out of the disturbed air in the slot. Except in the very = lightest of winds, where it=92s important to see the jib when it=92s = just starting=20 to lift, I think every big-boat helmsman ought to work on learning to = steer from=20 the windward side. I don=92t think you=92ll really improve your ability = to feel a=20 boat until you almost always steer from the weather side.

What = do you=20 look at when steering?
Too many helmsmen I sail with become = mesmerized by=20 the telltales. I=92m not saying that you shouldn=92t use them, but the = less you=20 depend on them the better off you=92ll probably be. I put telltales = about a third=20 of the way up the genoa and two feet back from the headstay. I also like = telltales on the shrouds. The best skippers use these telltales, but = they also=20 use the speedo, the waves, the horizon, the angle of heel, and so on. = The person=20 who uses many different factors and is able to compute them while = steering has=20 the best chance to become a good helmsman. I try to emphasize getting = away from=20 telltales and using them only as a reference.
A big boat is generally = hard to=20 feel, at least compared to a one-design. That=92s why it=92s good to = stand up on the=20 weather side and get as much input as possible when you=92re steering. = You can=92t=20 rely on just one thing; if you=92re only looking at the telltales, for = example,=20 what happens if the sail trimmer has the jib in too tight? You could be = sailing=20 by the telltales beautifully, but slowly and surely, the boat will start = going=20 slower and slower.
I like to put a boat=92s instruments as far = forward as I can=20 and still be able to read them. This allows me to keep all my steering=20 aids-telltales, waves, angle of heel, instruments, and sails-in my field = of=20 vision and eliminates the need to look down. If you have to turn your = head and=20 change focus to see the speedo or compass, then you=92ll have to = re-orient=20 yourself every time you look up, and that=92s slow.

How much = do you=20 steer by the instruments on the boat?
You have to sail a big boat = more by=20 the numbers than you would a small boat. The technology we have on boats = is=20 getting better all the time, and you don=92t want to ignore the input = that=20 instruments can give you while you=92re sailing upwind, especially on = bigger=20 boats, which are relatively insensitive. However, just as you wouldn=92t = sail a=20 boat only by the telltales, you don=92t want to steer it solely by the=20 instruments. I=92ve seen people try to sail a boat upwind using only the = apparent=20 wind angle instrument, and that=92s ridiculous. If you use any = instrument other=20 than as a reference, you=92re going to get into trouble. You have to = find a happy=20 medium where you use the instruments as a guide but don=92t get = mesmerized by=20 them.

Which instruments do you look at?
Let=92s break = it down=20 into two stages-a boat=92s tune-up period and then the time during = races. The best=20 way to learn how to sail a boat fast is to use as many of the = instruments as you=20 can. When you first start sailing a boat, see how fast it will go with = different=20 sails in varying conditions. If possible, have another boat with = relatively the=20 same rating out there with you and try different things. Then start = keeping=20 track of boatspeed, angle of heel, wind angle and speed (both true and=20 apparent), velocity made good to windward, etc. If you have a good = navigator or=20 someone who is comfortable with numbers, start making a chart for your = boat. At=20 this stage, use all the instruments.
When you=92re racing, however, = it=92s=20 difficult for even the best helmsman look around at a lot of = instruments. You=20 have to narrow it down. I think the two most important instruments are = boatspeed=20 and windspeed (I prefer using true wind, if possible, since it won=92t = be affected=20 by acceleration or deceleration). If you have made a performance chart = or if you=20 have a velocity prediction program, you=92ll know generally what = boatspeed you=20 should be getting at each windspeed. For example, if the skipper sees = that the=20 windspeed is 16 true and knows from experience that the best VMG will be = made at=20 a boatspeed of 6.8 knots, then he should start looking for 6.8 on the=20 speedo.

How do you know to pinch or foot?
You=92re = continually=20 looking at a tradeoff between going higher and slower or going lower and = faster.=20 The course that pays off is the one that will get you to the windward = mark the=20 fastest; the one that gives you the best VMG. Your optimal angle will = depend on=20 wind strength and sea conditions. In smooth water, for example, it will = usually=20 pay off to sail higher. This will give you the best VMG, but it also may = mean=20 that your speed through the water is lower than it might be in waves. = Some=20 helmsmen are confused when I suggest they try sailing at a slower = boatspeed;=20 they can=92t believe that I want them to go slower. What I=92m really = saying is,=20 "Let=92s head a little higher and try a little slower speed, and then = see if that=20 doesn=92t net out to a better VMG to windward."
As a rule of thumb, = the average=20 sailor steers a boat too fine; that is, it=92s sailed too high and too = slow. Most=20 people are obsessed with pointing well when they go upwind. But what = most people=20 don=92t realize is that pointing is a net effect-it=92s not just where = you point the=20 bow. It involves a boat=92s speed through the water and how the keel = interacts=20 with the sail plan. When the tactician says you=92re not pointing well, = you can=92t=20 just aim the boat higher because this means you=92ll go slower and the = keel won=92t=20 lift as well. You get going lower and slower, and it=92s a cumulative=20 problem.

How is steering upwind at night different than during = the=20 day?
If you can learn to sail a boat by feel during the day it = will=20 certainly improve your chances to sail a boat well at night. The best = sailors=20 feel the wind better at night; that is they are more attentive to where = the wind=20 is, either on the back of their neck or on their face, and they can feel = the=20 wind changing. You have to depend less on what you can see and more on = your=20 "sixth sense."
At the basic level, be sure your instruments are lit = up. A=20 flashlight on the headsail also can be an important reference since most = sailors=20 depend on the jib telltale more at night than during the day. I like to = position=20 a high-powered light so it is constantly shining on the telltale. That = doesn=92t=20 mean you=92re looking at the telltale all the time, but when you do look = at it you=20 don=92t have to wait for someone to shine a light up there. If you have = a=20 flashlight that goes on the side telltales from time to time, it=92s not = a bad=20 idea either, and make sure your Windex is lit. As far as position goes, = standing=20 to windward still offers the best opportunity to feel what is going on, = which is=20 important since you certainly can=92t see the wind or = waves.

What=92s=20 important for the helmsman to hear from the crew?
You definitely = don=92t=20 want everyone in the crew trying to communicate at once; that isn=92t = good for the=20 helmsman=92s concentration. I think that there are basically only two or = three=20 people who should talk to the helmsman-the tactician, the sail trimmer, = and=20 possibly the navigator. During a race, the helmsman will concentrate on = steering=20 the boat fast; the tactician will report tactics, the navigator will = communicate=20 with the tactician; and the sail trimmer will talk directly to the = helmsman=20 about speed. Most of the rest of the crew will speak up only if there is = something on the course that should be considered. I like to have this=20 communication go primarily to the tactician so the helmsman stays out of = it as=20 much as possible.
Big-boat sailing is a team sport as you can=92t do = everything=20 when you=92re driving-delegate responsibility. If you set up a good = hierarchy of=20 communication, then you=92ll hear what is essential and not waste your = time being=20 distracted by non-essential information. You=92ll also free yourself = from having=20 to tell everyone else what to do.

As a helmsman, what should = you=20 communicate to the crew?
The obvious things are, "Hey, the boat = feels=20 sluggish," or "We feel overpowered," or "I can=92t quite sail the jib = that tight=20 at the right speed." These are all things that have to be felt through = the wheel=20 or tiller; anyone else will have a hard time figuring out what=92s = wrong. I know=20 I=92m better at feeling why the boat is slow when I=92m on the helm-off = it I can=20 only guess.
One area where a skipper can be helpful is sail trim. A = mainsheet=20 trimmer, for example, looks at the main all day long and can get kind of = mesmerized with his own little problems. It=92s ironic how a skipper can = look up=20 and say, "Hmmm, we need a little more twist." The trimmer may be able to = make=20 the sail look perfect, but he can=92t really feel its effect on the = boat. Another=20 thing the skipper can feel better than anyone is the angle of heel. A = crewmember=20 can read it off the inclinometer, but the helmsman can say, "Hey, I = think the=20 boat would go better with a little more heel." What=92s important is = pressure on=20 the helm, or the feel of the boat.

How do you get and keep the = boat=20 "in the groove"?
Pressure on the helm is key to feeling the = groove. The=20 first thing that I do when I=92m sailing a new boat is to mark the wheel = or tiller=20 so that I can always tell how many degrees of helm the boat has. With a = tiller,=20 this means starting with a protractor at the rudderpost, extending the = degree=20 lines forward, and marking them on the deck under the tiller. You want = to go as=20 far forward as possible because the small angles we=92re talking about = show up=20 best there. A wheel=92s a little more simple because once you mark the = degree=20 lines on the quadrant, you can put a piece of tape at the top of the = wheel when=20 it=92s centered and another piece on each side of center at a certain = rudder=20 angle. Don=92t measure the angle on the wheel; turn the rudder that = amount and=20 then mark the wheel.

What=92s the optimum amount of weather=20 helm?
I=92d say that the optimal is probably three or four = degrees; this=20 has proven to be pretty fast on a trim tab, which you can actually crank = fairly=20 exactly and leave in one place. Five or six degrees has proven to be a = little=20 slow. With big modern rudders, having an angle of greater than four or = five=20 degrees is, in simplistic terms, like turning a barn door on the back of = the=20 boat. Three to four degrees will give the boat a little extra lift and = provide=20 the helmsman with the opportunity to feel when he=92s in the groove. = This is=20 particularly important with a wheel, which often feels like power = steering in a=20 car. So I try to make sure there=92s a mark at around four degrees on = the wheel or=20 tiller.
If you have only one or two degrees of weather helm, it=92s = probably=20 not enough for there to be a feeling of a groove. Ways to add pressure = would be=20 to heel the boat more, move your weight forward, trim the sails more to = the=20 centerline, power the sails up, etc. For example, if you=92re sailing = along in=20 medium air and have a hard time finding the groove, it might help to put = a few=20 guys on the leeward rail. Chances are that this is not faster through = the water,=20 but it would be faster for the helmsman. In other words, the boat will = probably=20 go fastest when it=92s sailed upright. But if you heel the boat five = more degrees,=20 the helmsman will be able to feel the boat better and do a better job of = steering, which may be more than enough to offset going slightly slower = through=20 the water.

Are there any other tricks that make it easier to = stay in=20 the groove?
It will usually be easier to keep the boat in the = groove if=20 you sail it on the full side, especially if the breeze is shifty or if = there are=20 waves. In other words, err on the side of sailing the boat slightly = faster than=20 the speed that you know will produce the best VMG. The reason for this = is that=20 heavy displacement boats depend on momentum, and once you start going = slow the=20 problem accumulates; that is, you keep getting slower and slower. Trying = to=20 point high in shifty or wavy conditions is like sailing with a jib that = has too=20 fine an entry-the envelope for error is narrow. When conditions are = variable=20 it=92s harder to find the groove again once you=92ve lost it; so if in = doubt, sail=20 slightly full.

What techniques do you use for steering upwind = in=20 waves?
Steer up the front side and down the backside. The bigger = the sea,=20 the more you have to think about how to get through it. When you=92re = going=20 upwind, against the waves, you want to steer through the waves so that = you are=20 affected as little as possible by the waves=92 action. The worst thing = you can do=20 is to turn the rudder too much. That=92s a general rule of thumb. But if = you don=92t=20 turn the rudder at least once in a while, a wave can really hurt = you.
You=20 need to have good peripheral vision and anticipate what=92s going to = happen. It=92s=20 like skiing. If you look only at the next mogul, you=92re invariably not = going to=20 be that great a skier; but if you get the total picture and then deal = with=20 things as they come, you could be a great skier. When you=92re steering = a=20 sailboat, you want to look five or ten waves ahead and at the same time = handle=20 each wave as it gets to you. I ask my crew (or my tactician) to let me = know when=20 a big wave is coming just in case I=92ve missed seeing it; I also ask = for input on=20 where the flat spots are.
Another good rule of thumb is to keep the = amount of=20 weather helm to a minimum in waves. Generally, this means using less = sail area=20 than you would in flat water. Most people think that they have to put up = a lot=20 of sail to power through the waves; but this creates a lot of helm, and = the=20 natural reaction is to try to reduce it by feathering. But every time = you=20 feather in waves, you start going slower and slower. You want the amount = of sail=20 area that will let you drive off for speed without overpowering the boat = and=20 steer the boat through the waves without being overwhelmed by weather=20 helm.

How should you steer a big boat through a tack?
A = big=20 boat has a lot of momentum and therefore a lot of shoot. This means that = to=20 optimize VMG you want to tack slower than in a one-design so that you = gain=20 distance to windward in the middle of the tack. The heavier the boat, = the slower=20 you can tack, but you don=92t want to take too long or it will be hard = to=20 accelerate coming out of the tack. A boat generally tacks with the best = VMG if=20 you swing into the wind slowly and then spin more quickly to get the = sails=20 filled on the new tack as soon as possible. The lighter the wind, the = more you=20 should back the jib.
When I=92m steering a boat through a tack, I = like to begin=20 the turn from my position on the windward side and stay there (as it = becomes the=20 leeward side) until I see the jib fill to what I think is the right = angle. Then=20 I=92ll jump to windward and watch everything that can help me get the = boat back in=20 the groove and up to speed. The windier it is, the sooner I move up to = the new=20 weather side. If you do it right, your speed-building curve should level = off=20 just as you reach the speed that will give you the best VMG to windward. = You=20 definitely want to come out of the tack fuller in light air and finer in = heavy=20 air.

Any other tips for steering upwind?
Even though = I=92ve said=20 that the helmsman should concentrate only on making the boat go fast and = let the=20 rest of the crew worry about everything else, that=92s not exactly true. = Sailing=20 is a team sport, and the skipper needs to function as the quarterback-he = should=20 be producing the "theme" for the sailboat race. Too often, the helmsman = jumps=20 behind the wheel without knowing who=92s doing what and steers his way = through a=20 race of confusion.
You have to organize things before you start = racing, or=20 you=92ll have too much to worry about while steering. Look at all the = races that=20 Dennis Conner has won, his organizational and management skills are so = good that=20 he=92s often won a race before he even gets out there. A lot of guys can = steer a=20 boat upwind well, but not too many are organized as well as they should = be. When=20 the helmsman, the quarterback, gets on the boat in the morning, he = should pull=20 everybody together for a few minutes and say, for example, "Okay, = you=92re going=20 to do the mast area, and I want you to coordinate the moves between the = bowman=20 and sail trimmer on the spinnaker set." You=92ll be surprised how easy = this can=20 make things during the race.
The job of steering a big boat upwind = requires a=20 wide range of skills, from doing your homework the night before a race = to using=20 your instruments for finding the best VMG. Anticipating what will happen = next=20 and always keeping an eye on the broader picture are key. When you=92re = able to do=20 this, driving is a lot of fun.